E. ENGLISH CLAUSES AND CONJUNCTIONS
II. ENGLISH CLAUSE
Notion of Clause
(http://grammar.about.com/od/il/g/independterm.htm)
A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb. There are two major types of clause. They are Independent clauses and dependent clauses. An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence, beginning with a capital letter and ending with terminal punctuation such as a period. A dependent clause cannot stand alone as a sentence; instead it must be attached to an independent clause." (G. Lutz and D. Stevenson, The Writer's Digest Grammar Desk Reference, 2005)
The followings discuss two types of clauses, independent and dependent clauses
1. Independent Clause/main clause (in compound sentence)
Nordquist (grammar.about.com) says Independent clause is a group of words made up of a subject and a predicate. An independent clause (unlike a dependent clause) can stand alone as a sentence. By itself, an independent clause (also known as a main clause) is a simple sentence.
Similarly, Lutz and Stevenson (2005) state that clause is a group of words that [contains] a subject and a verb. There are two major types: independent clauses and dependent clauses. An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence, beginning with a capital letter and ending with terminal punctuation such as a period. A dependent clause cannot stand alone as a sentence; instead it must be attached to an independent clause."(G. Lutz and D. Stevenson, The Writer's Digest Grammar Desk Reference, 2005)
Independent clauses in compound sentence
Full predications may be joined coordinately by punctuation alone, by coordinate conjunctions, or by conjunctive adverb.
· John was sick; he didn’t come to school (independent clauses joined merely by punctuation)
· John was sick so he didn’t come to school (independent clauses joined merely by a coordinate conjunction)
· John was sick; therefore, he didn’t come to school (independent clauses joined merely by a conjunctive adverb)
a. Independent Clauses Joined by Punctuation Alone
A semicolon replaces the period that separated the independent clauses. The first word in the clause after the semicolon begins with a small letter. Usually no more than two independent clauses are joined with a semicolon useless the clauses are parallel.
In most cases the use of a comma between such clauses (or no punctuation at all) would be a serious sentence fault. Sometimes, however, short, parallel clauses may be joined by a comma, especially when the second clause is abridged (disingkat).
Two clauses joined: Part of the search party when to the right, the rest (went) to the left.
Three clauses joined: I came, I saw, I conquered.
In formal English, a colon sometimes replaces a semicolon when the second clause explains or illustrates the first.
Because we are so greatly outnumbered, there is only one way we can avoid total destruction by the enemy: we must make a surprise attack at once.
In such a sentences the colon serves an anticipatory function. Sometimes the first word after the colon in capitalized, especially if it begins a question.
The questions being raised are these; How should the balance of appropriations (derma/pemberian/penghargaan) be spent, and to whom should they be given?
b. Independent Clauses Joined by Coordinate Conjunction
(for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)
Coordinate conjunctions are less formal than the equivalent conjunctive adverbs, but all such conjunctions are acceptable in formal discourse except so. Informal conversation is full of the loose coordination expressed by and, be careful writing requires more exact connectives or a reduction in the form of some of the predications.
A comma usually appears before the coordinates conjunction, especially if the clauses are long. However, it is not obligatory (wajib). The writer is often guided by whether he would pause in speech. For example, the contrast set up by but or yet is usually reflected by a pause in speech and a comma in writing.
Generally, it is advisable (sebaiknya) to use a comma before the coordinate conjunction for, in order to prevent misreading it as a preposition.
The girl did all the shopping and cooking, for her mother was in hospital.
A semicolon may appear before a coordinate conjunction joining clauses if there is already internal punctuation within one or more of the clauses.
The French Revolution was fought for the abstract ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity; but the Russion Revolution was fought for the more concrete goals of peace, bread, and land.
c. Conjunction Independent Clauses Joined by Conjunctive Adverbs
The conjunctive adverbs which join independently clauses behave both as conjunction and as adverbs. As conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs function as connecting grammatical structures. They are more likely be found in formal writing than in informal conversation.
Conjunctive Adverbs | Corresponding coord. conjunction | |
Addition | besides, likewise, moreover | and |
Condition | Otherwise | or |
Result | accordingly, consequently, hence, then, therefore | so |
Time Concession (contrast) | however, nevertheless, still | but, yet |
A conjunctive adverb has a more specific meaning than the corresponding coordinate conjunction. Some grammarians also classify indeed, also, anyhow, henceforth, meanwhile, too, among the conjunctive adverbs. In fact, the list of conjunctive adverb is often extended to include certain adverbial word groups, especially those showing the same relationship as the ones given above: in addition, as a result, for this reason, in spite of this fact.
Conjunctive adverbs may be used correlatively with subordinate conjunctions: if we miss the bus, then we’ll have to take a taxi. Other adverbs and adverbial word groups may fuction as conjunctive coordinates.
Addition | for one thing-for another (thing); partly…..partly |
Time | at one moment….at the next; sometimes….sometimes; now….then |
Contrast | on the one hand….on the other (hand) |
Conjunctive adverbs occupy the three possible position of adverbs
Initial position : The boy is sick; he therefore didn’t come to school.
Mid- position : The boy is sick; therefore, he didn’t come to school.
Final positioN : The boy is sick; he didn’t come to school, therefore. (final position only in a short clause)
A coordinate conjunction may be followed by another coordinate conjunction or by a conjunctive adverb, In such a use, the principal meaning is in the second word.
but still
and yet
and so
and therefore
and thus
or otherwise
or else
The doctor has warned him many times about the dangers of heavy smoking, and so he has decided to give up this habit (or and he has therefore decided to give up this habit)
2. Dependent Clauses /subordinate clause (in Complex Sentences)
By Richard Nordquist (grammar.about.com) Definition:
A group of words that has both a subject and a verb but (unlike an independent clause) cannot stand alone as a sentence. Also known as a subordinate clause. Dependent clauses include adverb clauses, adjective clauses, and noun clauses. "A dependent clause (also called a subordinate clause) is a clause that cannot stand alone, because something about it implies that there is more to come. On its own, a dependent clause is left hanging, its meaning incomplete. It must be combined with an independent clause in order to form a complete sentence. "One type of dependent clause is essentially an independent clause with a subordinating word tacked on. Specifically, it opens with a conjunction that indicates a dependent relationship with information elsewhere in the sentence."
(Anne Stilman, Grammatically Correct. Writer's Digest Books, 1997)
(Anne Stilman, Grammatically Correct. Writer's Digest Books, 1997)
"There can be levels of complexity within complex sentences. Within a dependent clause, for instance, there can be another dependent clause. For example, in the following sentence there is a main clause . . ., a dependent clause in an adverbial relationship with the main clause (in italics), and a dependent clause [bold italics] in an adverbial relationship with the first dependent clause:
If you want to survive the elements when you go hiking, you should remember to bring along a drink, pocket knife, whistle, map, torch, compass, blanket and food.
(Peter Knapp and Megan Watkins, Genre, Text, Grammar: Technologies for Teaching and Assessing Writing. University of New South Wales Press, 2005)
Subordinate clause is a group of words that has both a subject and a verb but (unlike an independent clause) cannot stand alone as a sentence. Also known as a dependent clause.
Exercise:
Determine independent n dependent clauses of the followings
- "Whenever you find yourself on the side of the majority, it is time to pause and reflect."
(Mark Twain) - "When I'm good, I'm very, very good, but when I'm bad, I'm better."
(Mae West, I'm No Angel) - "Memory is deceptive because it is colored by today's events."
(Albert Einstein) - "If you can't leave in a taxi you can leave in a huff. If that's too soon, you can leave in a minute and a huff.
(Groucho Marx, Duck Soup) - "If a free society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot save the few who are rich."
(John F. Kennedy) - "Man, when you lose your laugh, you lose your footing."
(Ken Kesey) - "Every book is a children's book if the kid can read."
(Mitch Hedberg)
Finite clauses are introduced by a subordinator, which serves to indicate the dependent status of the clause together with its circumstantial meaning. Formally, subordinating conjunctions can be grouped as follows:
- simple conjunctions: when, whenever, where, wherever, because, if, unless, until, while, as, although
- conjunctive groups: as if, as though, even if, even though, even when, soon after, no sooner
- complex conjunctions:: there are three subclasses:
(i) derived from verbs . . .: provided (that), granted (that), considering (that), seeing (that), suppose (that), supposing (that), so (that)
(ii) containing a noun: in case, in the event that, to the extent that, in spite of the fact that, the day, the way
(iii) adverbial: so/as long as, as soon as, so/as far as, much as, now (that)
(ii) containing a noun: in case, in the event that, to the extent that, in spite of the fact that, the day, the way
(iii) adverbial: so/as long as, as soon as, so/as far as, much as, now (that)
- (Angela Downing, English Grammar: A University Course. Routledge, 2006)
II. ENGLISH CONJUNCTIONS
By
Linda Bryson
TYPES OF ENGLISH CONJUNCTION
1. Coordinating Conjunctions
2. Correlative Conjunctions
3. Subordinating Conjunctions
We can consider conjunctions from three aspects
(http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/conjunctions.htm)
Form
Conjunctions have three basic forms:
Single Word
for example: and, but, because, although
Compound (often ending with as or that)
for example: provided that, as long as, in order that
Correlative (surrounding an adverb or adjective)
for example: so...that
Function
Conjunctions have two basic functions or "jobs":
Coordinating conjunctions are used to join two parts of a sentence that are grammatically equal. The two parts may be single words or clauses, for example:
- Jack and Jill went up the hill.
- The water was warm, but I didn't go swimming.
Subordinating conjunctions are used to join a subordinate dependent clause to a main clause, for example:
- I went swimming although it was cold.
Position
Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join.
Subordinating conjunctions usually come at the beginning of the subordinate clause.
In this lesson we will look in more detail at:
Coordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating Conjunctions
A BRIEF EXPLANATION OF CONJUNCTIONS
A conjunction is a word that links words, phrases, or clauses. Conjunctions are the words we use to link or join two or more sentences together or two words within the same sentence. The most common conjunctions in English are: and, but, or, nor, for. There are three types of conjunctions: coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions, and subordinating conjunctions. Coordinating conjunctions may join single words, or they may join groups of words, but they must always join similar elements: e.g. subject+subject, verb phrase+verb phrase, sentence+sentence. When a coordinating conjunction is used to join elements, the element becomes a compound element. Correlative conjunctions also connect sentence elements of the same kind: however, unlike coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions are always used in pairs. Subordinating conjunctions, the largest class of conjunctions, connect subordinate clauses to a main clause. These conjunctions are adverbs used as conjunctions.
The following tables show examples of the various types of conjunctions and some sample sentences using the conjunctions. Since coordinating conjunctions and correlative conjunctions are closed sets of words, all are included in the list. Subordinating conjunctions are a larger class of words; therefore, only a few of the more common ones are included in this list.
A conjunction is a word that links words, phrases, or clauses. There are three types of conjunctions: coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions, and subordinating conjunctions. Coordinating conjunctions may join single words, or they may join groups of words, but they must always join similar elements: e.g. subject+subject, verb phrase+verb phrase, sentence+sentence. When a coordinating conjunction is used to join elements, the element becomes a compound element. Correlative conjunctions also connect sentence elements of the same kind: however, unlike coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions are always used in pairs. Subordinating conjunctions, the largest class of conjunctions, connect subordinate clauses to a main clause. These conjunctions are adverbs used as conjunctions.
The following tables show examples of the various types of conjunctions and some sample sentences using the conjunctions. Since coordinating conjunctions and correlative conjunctions are closed sets of words, all are included in the list. Subordinating conjunctions are a larger class of words; therefore, only a few of the more common ones are included in this list.
A BRIEF EXPLANATION OF CONJUNCTIONS
F | A | N | B | O | Y | S |
For | and | Nor | But | or | yet | so |
An easy way to remember these six conjunctions is to think of the word FANBOYS. Each of the letters in this somewhat unlikely word is the first letter of one of the coordinating conjunctions. Remember, when using a conjunction to join two sentences, use a comma before the conjunction.
EXAMPLES AND SENTENCES
COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
CONJUNCTION | WHAT IS LINKED | SAMPLE SENTENCES |
And | noun phrase+noun phrase | We have tickets for the symphony and the opera. |
But | sentence+sentence | The orchestra rehearses on Tuesday, but the chorus rehearses on Wednesday. |
Or | verb+verb | Have you seen or heard the opera by Scott Joplin? |
So | sentence+sentence | I wanted to sit in the front of the balcony, so I ordered my tickets early. |
CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS
both...and | not only...but also | either...or | neither...nor | whether...or |
Remember, correlative conjunctions are always used in pairs. They join similar elements.When joining singular and plural subjects, the subject closest to the verb determines whether the verb is singular or plural.
EXAMPLES AND SENTENCES
CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS
CONJUNCTION | WHAT IS LINKED | SAMPLE SENTENCES |
both...and | subject+subject | Both my sister and my brother play the piano. |
either...or | noun+noun | Tonight's program is either Mozart or Beethoven. |
neither...nor | subject+subject | Neither the orchestra nor the chorus was able to overcome the terrible acoustics in the church |
not only...but also | sentence+sentence | Not only does Sue raise money for the symphony, but she also ushers at all of their concerts. |
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
TIME | CAUSE + EFFECT | OPPOSITION | CONDITION |
after | because | although | if |
before | since | though | unless |
when | Now that | Even though | Only if |
while | as | whereas | Whether or not |
since | In order that | while | Even if |
until | so | - | In case (that) |
Subordinating conjunctions, (subordinators) are most important in creating subordinating clauses. These adverbs that act like conjunctions are placed at the front of the clause. The adverbial clause can come either before or after the main clause. Subordinators are usually a single word, but there are also a number of multi-word subordinators that function like a single subordinating conjunction. They can be classified according to their use in regard to time, cause and effect, opposition, or condition. Remember, put a comma at the end of the adverbial phrase when it precedes the main clause.
EXAMPLES AND SENTENCES
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
CONJUNCTION | SAMPLE SENTENCE |
after | We are going out to eat after we finish taking the test. |
Since | Since we have lived in Atlanta, we have gone to every exhibit at the High Musuem. |
While | While I was waiting in line for the Matisse Exhibit, I ate my lunch. |
Although | Although the line was long and the wait over two hours, the exhibit was well worth it |
Even if | Even if you have already bought your ticket, you will still need to wait in line. |
because | I love Matisse's works because he uses color so brilliantly. |
RESOURCES
Azar, B. S.(1993). Understanding and Using English Grammar. Englewood Hills, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.
Byrd, P. and Benson, B. (1992). Applied English Grammar. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
Greenbaum, S. and Quirk, R. (1990). A Student's Grammar of the English Language. Essex, England: Longman.
Hodges, J. and Whitten, M. (1984). Harbrace College Handbook. Atlanta: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publisher.
EXERCISE:
Write 10 sentences consisting of dependent n independent clauses freely.
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